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The term Southeast Asia has been in use since World War II. The region has been further divided into two distinct sub-regions: Mainland Southeast Asia (or Indochina), which comprises the modern states of Vietnam, Laos, Cambodia, Thailand, Myanmar (Burma) and West Malaysia, and Maritime Southeast Asia (or Insular Southeast Asia), which comprises the modern states of Indonesia, East Malaysia, Singapore, Philippines, East Timor, Brunei, Cocos (Keeling) Islands, and Christmas Island.[1][2]
The earliest Homo sapiens presence in Mainland Southeast Asia can be traced back to 50,000 years ago and to at least 40,000 years ago in Maritime Southeast Asia. As early as 10,000 years ago, Hoabinhian settlers had developed a tradition and culture of distinct artefact and tool production. During the Neolithic, Austroasiatic peoples populated Indochina via land routes and sea-borne Austronesian immigrants preferably settled in insular Southeast Asia. The earliest agricultural societies that cultivated millet and wet-rice emerged around 1,700 BCE in the lowlands and river floodplains of Indochina.[3]
The Phung Nguyen culture (modern northern Vietnam) and the Ban Chiang site (modern Thailand) account for the earliest use of copper by around 2,000 BCE, followed by the Dong Son culture, who by around 500 BCE had developed a highly sophisticated industry of bronze production and processing. Around the same time the first Agrarian Kingdoms emerged where territory was abundant and favourable, such as Funan at the lower Mekong and Van Lang in the Red River delta.[4] Smaller and insular principalities increasingly engaged in and contributed to the rapidly expanding sea trade.
The history of Southeast Asia has been greatly influenced by its wide topographical diversity. Maritime Southeast Asia is apart from exceptions like Borneo and Sumatra a patchwork of recurring land-sea patterns on widely dispersed islands and archipelagos. A discontinuity,[5] that admitted moderately sized thalassocratic states indifferent to territorial ambitions where growth and prosperity was associated with sea trade. Mainland Southeast Asia with a continuous, but rugged and difficult terrain provided the basis for the early Khmer and Mon civilisations. However, an extensive coastline and the south—and south-eastbound major river systems of the Irrawaddy, Salween, Chao Phraya, Mekong, and Red River always have directed focus, local trade, socio-cultural and economic activities towards the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea.[6][7]
Since around 100 BCE the Southeast Asian archipelago occupied a central position at the crossroads of the Indian Ocean and the South China Sea trading routes which immensely stimulated the economy and the influx of ideas promoted societal organisation and advance. Most local trading polities selectively adopted Indian Hindu elements of statecraft, religion, culture and administration during the early centuries of the common era, which marked the beginning of recorded history and the continuation of a characteristic cultural development. Chinese culture diffused more indirectly and sporadic as trade was based on land routes like the Silk Road. Long periods of Chinese isolationism and political relations that were confined to ritualistic tribute procedures prevented deep acculturation.[8][9]
